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Definition: Exposure refers to the people, property, infrastructure, and other tangible assets that are subject to damage from the hazard. Examples: Exposure can be calculated from population density; the value and physical location of infrastructure; construction type, quality, and age of buildings; and characteristics of natural; infrastructure (such as wetlands, forest, etc.).

Vulnerability

Exposure

Definition: Vulnerability refers to the social, political, economic, and physical components of a community or society that influence the sensitivity of populations to disruption from the hazard. Examples: The vulnerability of communities is influenced by the strength of social and family networks, extent of awareness about and preparedness for the hazard, access to political will, and socioeconomic status, among other things.

Definition: Hazard refers to the frequency and magnitude of a natural phenomenon that can result in damage to a community, ecosystem, or society. Examples: Natural hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, river flooding, landslides, severe storms, sea level rise, etc.

Choose a city, then a hazard, to show the risk. Click on the words in the circles for definitions.

Definition: Risk is the likelihood of damaging impacts from a particular hazard over a given period of time. Risk is determined by assessing the hazards, exposure, and vulnerabilities in a particular community.

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Choose a hazard to show the risk. Click on the words in the circles for definitions.

Hazard: Seattle is about 150 km north of Mt. St. Helens, which last erupted in 1980, and less than 100 km northwest of Mt. Rainier, another active volcano in the Cascade Range. Despite its proximity to multiple volcanoes, however, Seattle is unlikely to experience direct effects of volcanic eruptions. The prevailing winds will carry ash to the east rather than towards Seattle, and river valleys that carry lahars mostly do not reach the city. Large eruptions could produce ashfall that reaches the city, however, and lahars are likely because the volcanoes are glacier-covered. Exposure: Although the city itself is not likely in the direct path of an ash cloud, some of the city’s water sources are reservoirs in the Eastern Cascades which would be exposed to ashfall. Although lahars are not likely to reach the city, they could inundate or otherwise impact major highways in and out of the city. Vulnerability: The exposure to hazards from volcanic eruptions is not exacerbated by social or economic vulnerabilities.

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Risk: Low

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The exposure to hazards from volcanic eruptions is not exacerbated by social or economic vulnerabilities.

Although the city itself is not likely in the direct path of an ash cloud, some of the city’s water sources are reservoirs in the Eastern Cascades which would be exposed to ashfall. Although lahars are not likely to reach the city, they could inundate or otherwise impact major highways in and out of the city.

Seattle is about 150 km north of Mt. St. Helens, which last erupted in 1980, and less than 100 km northwest of Mt. Rainier, another active volcano in the Cascade Range. Despite its proximity to multiple volcanoes, however, Seattle is unlikely to experience direct effects of volcanic eruptions. The prevailing winds will carry ash to the east rather than towards Seattle, and river valleys that carry lahars mostly do not reach the city. Large eruptions could produce ashfall that reaches the city, however, and lahars are likely because the volcanoes are glacier-covered.

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Hazard: Seattle is located near a major plate boundary fault, the Cascadia subduction zone. Major earthquakes occur on the subduction zone fault every 300-400 years. Earthquakes on surface faults happen more frequently, every 50-100 years. Both kinds of earthquakes cause liquefaction of sediments along the waterfront and can cause tsunamis. Exposure: A major earthquake could cause several billion dollars in damage. The port and major transportation hubs are located in sediments that would be liquified. Older residential and commercial buildings are not built to modern seismic codes. Although some roads and bridges have recently been renovated to better withstand seismic shaking, many elevated roadways remain precarious. Vulnerability: The areas that would experience the greatest shaking are populated by highly socially vulnerable populations.

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Risk: High

Seattle is located near a major plate boundary fault, the Cascadia subduction zone. Major earthquakes occur on the subduction zone fault every 300-400 years. Earthquakes on surface faults happen more frequently, every 50-100 years. Both kinds of earthquakes cause liquefaction of sediments along the waterfront and can cause tsunamis.

A major earthquake could cause several billion dollars in damage. The port and major transportation hubs are located in sediments that would be liquified. Older residential and commercial buildings are not built to modern seismic codes. Although some roads and bridges have recently been renovated to better withstand seismic shaking, many elevated roadways remain precarious.

The areas that would experience the greatest shaking are populated by highly socially vulnerable populations.

Hazard: Washington, DC, is located far from plate boundaries, but nearby older crustal faults can be activated through plate motion. The region occasionally experiences local small earthquakes and can experience shaking from more distant, larger earthquakes. Moderate local earthquakes are rare. Exposure: Older stone and unreinforced masonry buildings are likely to be damaged in a moderate earthquake. Shaking is not likely to be severe enough to cause major damage. Vulnerability: Many residents in DC are likely to be unfamiliar with earthquake hazards, making them more vulnerable.

Older stone and unreinforced masonry buildings are likely to be damaged in a moderate earthquake. Shaking is not likely to be severe enough to cause major damage.

Many residents in DC are likely to be unfamiliar with earthquake hazards, making them more vulnerable.

Washington, DC, is located far from plate boundaries, but nearby older crustal faults can be activated through plate motion. The region occasionally experiences local small earthquakes and can experience shaking from more distant, larger earthquakes. Moderate local earthquakes are rare. 

There are no active volcanoes within 2000 km of Washington, DC. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Washington, DC, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Risk: Non-existent

Research Report by Climate Central

Hazard: Washington, D.C. is on a tidally-controlled stretch of the Potomac River. Sea level rise will affect the tides, and the city may experience some flooding as a result. Exposure: Many of the low-lying parts of Washington, D.C. house historical sites and monuments; residential areas and government offices are largely further away from the river. Although one DC-area airport is right on the river and exposed to the tides and sea-level rise, a second airport is further away and would not be exposed. Vulnerability: Few communities are exposed to flooding, and these have low social vulnerability.

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Many of the low-lying parts of Washington, D.C. house historical sites and monuments; residential areas and government offices are largely further away from the river. Although one DC-area airport is right on the river and exposed to the tides and sea-level rise, a second airport is further away and would not be exposed.

Washington, D.C. is on a tidally-controlled stretch of the Potomac River. Sea level rise will affect the tides, and the city may experience some flooding as a result.

Few communities are exposed to flooding, and these have low social vulnerability.

Hazard: San Francisco lies along a major plate boundary, and the San Andreas fault runs just west of the city. It frequently experiences moderate earthquakes, and major earthquakes occur regularly. The USGS estimates a 72% chance of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake or greater occurring on one of the faults in the San Francisco area in the next 30 years. Earthquakes cause liquefaction of water-laden sediments around the bay. Exposure: A major earthquake is likely to cause billions of dollars in damage to freeways, buildings, and homes, despite efforts to retrofit buildings. New bridges across the bay are designed with extreme shaking in mind and are likely to withstand a major earthquake but may be damaged. Vulnerability: Lower-income communities are concentrated in areas where shaking will be intensified by liquefaction. Damage will be greater and more of these vulnerable populations will be displaced.

Risk: Very High

San Francisco lies along a major plate boundary, and the San Andreas fault runs just west of the city. It frequently experiences moderate earthquakes, and major earthquakes occur regularly. The USGS estimates a 72% chance of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake or greater occurring on one of the faults in the San Francisco area in the next 30 years. Earthquakes cause liquefaction of water-laden sediments around the bay.

A major earthquake is likely to cause billions of dollars in damage to freeways, buildings, and homes, despite efforts to retrofit buildings. New bridges across the bay are designed with extreme shaking in mind and are likely to withstand a major earthquake but may be damaged.

Lower-income communities are concentrated in areas where shaking will be intensified by liquefaction. Damage will be greater and more of these vulnerable populations will be displaced.

San Francisco, CA, is about 300 km west of Long Valley Caldera, which is the closest active volcanic feature. Because the prevailing winds are to the east, San Francisco is unlikely to experience significant ashfall even in a supereruption. Because volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for San Francisco, the risk of the impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Risk: Moderate

Hazard: San Francisco and the surrounding Bay Area experience minor coastal flooding from extremely high tides, which will be exacerbated by sea level rise. Most of the region is not subject to major storm surges or extreme waves as they face the San Francisco Bay rather than the Pacific Ocean. Exposure: The port of Oakland and all of the major airports in the region are exposed to sea level rise, as well as several major residential neighborhoods. Vulnerability: The residential areas exposed to sea level rise and coastal flooding are more socially vulnerable that other communities.

The residential areas exposed to sea level rise and coastal flooding are more socially vulnerable that other communities.

The port of Oakland and all of the major airports in the region are exposed to sea level rise, as well as several major residential neighborhoods.

San Francisco and the surrounding Bay Area experience minor coastal flooding from extremely high tides, which will be exacerbated by sea level rise. Most of the region is not subject to major storm surges or extreme waves as they face the San Francisco Bay rather than the Pacific Ocean.

Hazard: Reno is located on the western boundary of the Basin and Range province, a region characterized by active extension. It frequently experiences small to moderate earthquakes locally, and can experience shaking from more distant earthquakes. Earthquakes can activate springs at the surface. According to the US Geological Survey, the chance of having a damaging, magnitude 6 earthquake within 30 miles of the Reno urban corridor over the next 50 years ranges between 60% and 75%. Exposure: A major earthquake could cause several billion dollars worth of damage in the Reno area and displace thousands of people. Many older buildings are unreinforced masonry. Vulnerability: More vulnerable populations live in areas more likely to experience greater shaking.

A major earthquake could cause several billion dollars worth of damage in the Reno area and displace thousands of people. Many older buildings are unreinforced masonry.

More vulnerable populations live in areas more likely to experience greater shaking.

Reno is located on the western boundary of the Basin and Range province, a region characterized by active extension. It frequently experiences small to moderate earthquakes locally, and can experience shaking from more distant earthquakes. Earthquakes can activate springs at the surface. According to the US Geological Survey, the chance of having a damaging, magnitude 6 earthquake within 30 miles of the Reno urban corridor over the next 50 years ranges between 60% and 75%.

Reno is about 200 km north of Long Valley Caldera, which is the closest active volcanic feature. Reno could experience 1-5 cm of ashfall in a Long Valley Caldera supereruption; such an event occurs very infrequently. Despite this possibility, the risk Reno faces from the immediate impacts of a volcanic eruption is essentially non-existent.

At an elevation over 6000’ and more that 300 km from the Pacific Ocean, Reno is not subject to coastal flooding.

Hazard: New York is located far from plate boundaries, but nearby older crustal faults can be activated through plate motion. The region occasionally experiences local moderate earthquakes as well as shaking from more distant, larger earthquakes. Exposure: New York City is a dense urban area with hundreds of billions of dollars of assets. Many large historic buildings were built before modern seismic codes were implemented, and have not yet been retrofitted. Many tall buildings have water storage tanks on their roofs, which can topple easily. Although large earthquakes are rare, the exposure is very large. Vulnerability: The density of the population creates a vulnerability for everyone.

New York is located far from plate boundaries, but nearby older crustal faults can be activated through plate motion. The region occasionally experiences local moderate earthquakes as well as shaking from more distant, larger earthquakes.

New York City is a dense urban area with hundreds of billions of dollars of assets. Many large historic buildings were built before modern seismic codes were implemented, and have not yet been retrofitted. Many tall buildings have water storage tanks on their roofs, which can topple easily. Although large earthquakes are rare, the exposure is very large.

Vulnerability: The density of the population creates a vulnerability for everyone.

There are no active volcanoes within 2500 km of New York, NY. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Chicago, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Hazard: Minor coastal flooding in New York City is a regular occurrence with exceptionally high tides, worsened by sea level rise. A warming climate is generating more extreme weather events that bring more frequent and larger storm surges. Exposure: Over 245,000 people in New York City are exposed to the impacts of sea level rise, storm surges, high tides, and waves. The New York subway system and other major transportation routes are impacted by coastal flooding. Vulnerability: A high proportion of the population that will be impacted by coastal flooring is socially vulnerable.

A high proportion of the population that will be impacted by coastal flooring is socially vulnerable.

Minor coastal flooding in New York City is a regular occurrence with exceptionally high tides, worsened by sea level rise. A warming climate is generating more extreme weather events that bring more frequent and larger storm surges.

Over 245,000 people in New York City are exposed to the impacts of sea level rise, storm surges, high tides, and waves.The New York subway system and other major transportation routes are impacted by coastal flooding.

Hazard: Minneapolis is on the stable craton of North America, far from plate boundaries and other crustal faults. Earthquakes are very rare in this region, and only 20 relatively small earthquakes (M = 3–4) have been documented in Minnesota since 1860. Exposure: Most houses are wood-frame and buildings meet modern codes; both would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Vulnerability: Minneapolis is a diverse city with a substantial recent immigrant population. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed.

Risk: Very Low

Most houses are wood-frame and buildings meet modern codes; both would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected.

Minneapolis is a diverse city with a substantial recent immigrant population. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed.

Minneapolis is on the stable craton of North America, far from plate boundaries and other crustal faults. Earthquakes are very rare in this region, and only 20 relatively small earthquakes (M = 3–4) have been documented in Minnesota since 1860.

There are no active volcanoes within 1200 km of Minneapolis, MN. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Minneapolis, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Minneapolis is located deep in the interior of North America and is not subject to coastal flooding.

Hazard: Miami is located far from any plate boundaries and crustal faults. Earthquakes are very rare in this region. Exposure: Most houses are wood-frame and would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Older buildings may sustain more damage from weather-related deterioration. Vulnerability: Miami is a diverse city with a substantial recent immigrant population, large non-English-speaking population, and high poverty rate. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed and easily isolated.

Most houses are wood-frame and would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Older buildings may sustain more damage from weather-related deterioration.

Miami is located far from any plate boundaries and crustal faults. Earthquakes are very rare in this region.

Miami is a diverse city with a substantial recent immigrant population, large non-English-speaking population, and high poverty rate. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed and easily isolated.

There are no active volcanoes within 1500 km of Miami, FL. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Miami, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Hazard: Miami regularly experiences coastal flooding during high tides, and sea level is projected to rise 20-60 cm by 2040. Warmer ocean temperatures also produce more extreme storms and hurricanes, which can cause additional damage through wind and storm surges. Exposure: Nearly 500,000 people live on land that is less than 1 m above sea level, along with $400 billion in assets. Much of this land will be inundated as sea level rises. Sea level rise and coastal flooding will impact freshwater aquifers and the availability of drinking water. Vulnerability: A large proportion of Miami’s residents that live in the coastal flood zone are socially vulnerable.

Miami regularly experiences coastal flooding during high tides, and sea level is projected to rise 20-60 cm by 2040. Warmer ocean temperatures also produce more extreme storms and hurricanes, which can cause additional damage through wind and storm surges.

Nearly 500,000 people live on land that is less than 1 m above sea level, along with $400 billion in assets. Much of this land will be inundated as sea level rises. Sea level rise and coastal flooding will impact freshwater aquifers and the availability of drinking water.

A large proportion of Miami’s residents that live in the coastal flood zone are socially vulnerable.

Hazard: Los Angeles lies along a major plate boundary and a complex fault zone. The region experiences frequent large earthquakes, and ground shaking is amplified in the sediments of the LA basin. The USGS estimates that here is 75% probability of one or more magnitude 7.0 or greater earthquakes striking Southern California in a 30-year period, beginning in 2014. Exposure: The assets exposed to damage from earthquakes in LA are substantial. A major earthquake is still likely to produce significant damage and losses, with estimates ranging up to $300 billion. Vulnerability: Some communities are more vulnerable than others, particularly those low-income communities in flat-lying areas where the shaking would be intensified. Freeway damage and broken gas and electrical lines could isolate these communities in the event of an earthquake.

The assets exposed to damage from earthquakes in LA are substantial. A major earthquake is still likely to produce significant damage and losses, with estimates ranging up to $300 billion.

Some communities are more vulnerable than others, particularly those low-income communities in flat-lying areas where the shaking would be intensified. Freeway damage and broken gas and electrical lines could isolate these communities in the event of an earthquake.

Los Angeles lies along a major plate boundary and a complex fault zone. The region experiences frequent large earthquakes, and ground shaking is amplified in the sediments of the LA basin. The USGS estimates that here is 75% probability of one or more magnitude 7.0 or greater earthquakes striking Southern California in a 30-year period, beginning in 2014. 

There are no active volcanoes within 500 km of Los Angeles, CA. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Los Angeles, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Hazard: Low-lying coastal areas of Los Angeles experience coastal flooding during extremely high tides. Sea-level rise can result in higher storm surges and tsunami inundation. Exposure: Most of the city is on high bluffs above the ocean and is not exposed to coastal flooding. However, the port of Long Beach, the largest port on the west coast, is a major asset exposed to sea-level rise. Vulnerability: The communities exposed to coastal flooding have a range of social vulnerability, mostly low to medium. Major damage to the port, however, would have far-reaching impacts that would increase the vulnerability.

Most of the city is on high bluffs above the ocean and is not exposed to coastal flooding. However, the port of Long Beach, the largest port on the west coast, is a major asset exposed to sea-level rise.

Low-lying coastal areas of Los Angeles experience coastal flooding during extremely high tides. Sea-level rise can result in higher storm surges and tsunami inundation.

The communities exposed to coastal flooding have a range of social vulnerability, mostly low to medium. Major damage to the port, however, would have far-reaching impacts that would increase the vulnerability.

Examples: Exposure can be calculated from population density; the value and physical location of infrastructure; construction type, quality, and age of buildings; and characteristics of natural infrastructure (such as wetlands, forest, etc.).

Definition: Exposure refers to the people, property, infrastructure, and other tangible assets that are subject to damage from the hazard.

Hazard: Houston is located far from any plate boundaries and crustal faults. Earthquakes are very rare in this region. Exposure: Most houses are wood-frame and buildings meet modern codes; both would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Vulnerability: Minneapolis is a diverse city. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed.

Houston is a diverse city. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed.

Houston is located far from any plate boundaries and crustal faults. Earthquakes are very rare in this region.

There are no active volcanoes within 1000 km of Houston, TX. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Houston, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Houston is on the upper reaches of Galveston Bay, about 80 km from the mouth, and will not directly experience most of the impacts of sea level rise and coastal flooding.

Denver is famously known as the “Mile-High City” and lies approximately 1500 km from the ocean, so is not subject to coastal flooding.

There are no active volcanoes within 1500 km of Chicago, IL. Volcanic eruptions are not a hazard for Chicago, so the risk from the immediate impact of a volcanic eruption is non-existent.

Hazard: Chicago is located in the middle of the North American continent, far from any plate boundaries, but relatively close to the New Madrid Seismic Zone. Earthquakes with epicenters near Chicago are very rare, but the city may experience shaking from a large earthquake in the New Madrid region. Because it is located on Lake Michigan and the Chicago River flows through the city, a large, distant earthquake could cause small tsunami and flooding. Exposure: Most houses are wood-frame and buildings meet modern codes; both would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Vulnerability: Chicago is a diverse city. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed.

Chicago is a diverse city. In the unlikely event of an earthquake, some populations may be less informed.

Chicago is located in the middle of the North American continent, far from any plate boundaries, but relatively close to the New Madrid Seismic Zone. Earthquakes with epicenters near Chicago are very rare, but the city may experience shaking from a large earthquake in the New Madrid region. Because it is located on Lake Michigan and the Chicago River flows through the city, a large, distant earthquake could cause small tsunami and flooding.

Chicago is located on Lake Michigan, a freshwater inland lake, and is not subject to coastal flooding.

Hazard: Anchorage is located near a subduction zone, where large earthquakes are generated by the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath Alaska. One of the largest earthquakes recorded, a M 9.2, occurred in 1964 on this subduction zone, and large earthquakes occur frequently. In addition, these earthquakes generate tsunami that can impact Anchorage and cities around the Pacific Ocean. Earthquakes also trigger large landslides, which are another hazard for the city. Exposure: Infrastructure in and around Anchorage is likely to sustain damage in a major earthquake. Vulnerability: Residents of Anchorage experience frequent earthquakes and are relatively knowledgeable about how to respond. However, many small communities are vulnerable to being isolated in the aftermath of an earthquake with supply lines cut off.

Residents of Anchorage experience frequent earthquakes and are relatively knowledgeable about how to respond. However, many small communities are vulnerable to being isolated in the aftermath of an earthquake with supply lines cut off.

Anchorage is located near a subduction zone, where large earthquakes are generated by the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath Alaska. One of the largest earthquakes recorded, a M 9.2, occurred in 1964 on this subduction zone, and large earthquakes occur frequently. In addition, these earthquakes generate tsunami that can impact Anchorage and cities around the Pacific Ocean. Earthquakes also trigger large landslides, which are another hazard for the city.

Infrastructure in and around Anchorage is likely to sustain damage in a major earthquake.

Hazard: Anchorage, AK, is in close proximity to two volcanoes that have been active in the 20th century: Redoubt and Augustine. The prevailing winds carry ash from these two volcanoes directly east towards Anchorage, thus significant ashfall is the primary hazard that the city could experience. Exposure: Air travel over Alaska and the Anchorage airport are highly exposed. Air traffic through the region is not only flights to and from Alaska, but flights between North America and eastern Asia. Flights carrying freight between Europe and Asia often stop in Anchorage for refueling. Most structures were built in the 1960s and later, and conform to modern building codes that are resistant to collapse under volcanic ash. Vulnerability: Anchorage has a relatively low percentage of elderly residents and significantly lower poverty rate than the United States as a whole, leading to relatively low vulnerability despite the exposure.

Anchorage, AK, is in close proximity to two volcanoes that have been active in the 20th century: Redoubt and Augustine. The prevailing winds carry ash from these two volcanoes directly east towards Anchorage, thus significant ashfall is the primary hazard that the city could experience.

Anchorage has a relatively low percentage of elderly residents and significantly lower poverty rate than the United States as a whole, leading to relatively low vulnerability despite the exposure.

Air travel over Alaska and the Anchorage airport are highly exposed. Air traffic through the region is not only flights to and from Alaska, but flights between North America and eastern Asia. Flights carrying freight between Europe and Asia often stop in Anchorage for refueling. Most structures were built in the 1960s and later, and conform to modern building codes that are resistant to collapse under volcanic ash.

Hazard: The rate of sea level rise in Anchorage is lower than the global average. Exposure: Although Anchorage is located on the coast, the coastline is steep and the city is elevated above the coastal flooding zone. The port is located in the coastal flood zone, however, and could be damaged. Vulnerability: Damage to the port may affect some communities more than others.

Although Anchorage is located on the coast, the coastline is steep and the city is elevated above the coastal flooding zone. The port is located in the coastal flood zone, however, and could be damaged.

The rate of sea level rise in Anchorage is lower than the global average.

Damage to the port may affect some communities more than others.

Seattle sits on Puget Sound and experiences minor coastal flooding from extremely high tides. Although Puget Sound is connected to the Pacific Ocean, Seattle is somewhat protected from extreme storms and storm surges by the Olympic Peninsula. Sea-level rise will increase tide- and tsunami-related coastal flooding for low-lying areas.

Major infrastructure and transportation hubs are in low-lying areas that will be inundated by sea-level rise. Most residential and business areas are elevated above the water on steep hills and will not experience immediate impacts.

The impact on transportation networks will impact some communities more than others, making them more vulnerable.

Hazard: Seattle sits on Puget Sound and experiences minor coastal flooding from extremely high tides. Although Puget Sound is connected to the Pacific Ocean, Seattle is somewhat protected from extreme storms and storm surges by the Olympic Peninsula. Sea-level rise will increase tide- and tsunami-related coastal flooding for low-lying areas. Exposure: Major infrastructure and transportation hubs are in low-lying areas that will be inundated by sea-level rise. Most residential and business areas are elevated above the water on steep hills and will not experience immediate impacts. Vulnerability: The impact on transportation networks will impact some communities more than others, making them more vulnerable. 

Denver, CO, is about 700 km southeast of Yellowstone caldera, which is the closest active volcanic feature. Denver could experience 10-30 cm of ashfall in a Yellowstone supereruption; such an event occurs very infrequently. Despite this possibility, the risk Denver faces from the immediate impacts of a volcanic eruption is essentially non-existent.

Denver is located far from major plate boundaries, but close to major crustal faults like the Rio Grande Rift and older fault systems within the Rocky Mountains. Nearby earthquakes are relatively small and infrequent, but the city could experience shaking from more distant events.

Most houses are wood-frame and buildings meet modern codes; both would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Statewide estimates place expected losses in a large earthquake ~$5.8 million.

Vulnerable populations live in areas where ground shaking is likely to be larger and may face greater damage.

Hazard: Denver is located far from major plate boundaries, but close to major crustal faults like the Rio Grande Rift and older fault systems within the Rocky Mountains. Nearby earthquakes are relatively small and infrequent, but the city could experience shaking from more distant events. Exposure: Most houses are wood-frame and buildings meet modern codes; both would fare well in moderate shaking with little damage expected. Statewide estimates place expected losses in a large earthquake ~$5.8 million. Vulnerability: Vulnerable populations live in areas where ground shaking is likely to be larger and may face greater damage.

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